Key Concepts Blog: Methods/Ethics/ Theory Readings

Connaway and Powell (2007)

Chapter 3 Selecting the Research Method

Action Research – is a type of applied research.  It has direct application to immediate workplace.  It is usually done by external researcher who works with organizational members to solve a problem.  Applied research may have broader purpose to contribute to the profession.  But action research is for direct application.

Historical Research – is reconstructing the past systematically and objectively by collecting, evaluating, verifying and synthesizing evidence.  It is usually done in relation to hypothesis concerning causes, effects and trends of past events.

Connaway and Powell (2007) 
Chapter 4 Survey Research and Sampling

Survey research is studying a small number selected from a large group and make inferences about the large group.  It is used to gather contemporary data (unlike historical), to study large number of cases and for exploratory analysis of relationships.  It does not manipulate the independent variable like experimental research.

Purposes of descriptive survey:

-        Describes the characteristics of the population.

-        Estimates proportions in the population.

-        Make specific predictions.

-        Test associational relationships.

Descriptive survey cannot test casual relationship.  However it can show correlation between variables.

Wildemuth (2009) 
Chapter 6 Questions Related to Theory

Theory according to Mintzberg (2005)

-        It is not true.  Instead, it is simplification of complicated realities.

-        Theory development is neither objective nor deductive.

-        Developing theory is inductive, but testing theory is deductive.

Theory according to Kuhn (1996)

-        Theories are essentially, if not actually, true.

-        They describe a phenomenon well.

-        A theory works only until a “critical mass of anomalies and exceptions to it are found” – then it has to be replaced.

Sources

Connaway, L. S. & Powell, R.R. (2007). Chapter 3 & 4. In Basic Research Methods or Librarians (5th ed.). California.

Wildemuth, B. M. (2009). Chapter 6. In Applications of Social Research Methods to Questions in Information and Library Science. Connecticut.

Key Concepts Blog: Literature Review Readings

University of Toronto

Definition of Literature Review

Literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers.

Writing the Literature Review

The literature review should be organized into sections that present themes or identify trends, including relevant theory.  It should not be a listing of summary of literature one after the other.  Include overall introduction and conclusion stating scope and formulating question, problem or concept.  Organize materials into sections.  Include critical assessment of the materials.

University of California, Santa Cruz

Literature Review

Literature Review has 4 stages like a primary research

• Problem formulation – field, topic and component issues
• Literature search – finding relevant materials
• Data evaluation – evaluating the materials
• Analysis and interpretation – discussing findings and conclusions of the literature

Considerations during literature review

• Provenance – credibility of author and the research
• Objectivity
• Persuasiveness
• Value/significance

Widener University

Important aspects of Literature Review

• How do studies fit together - similar findings and contradictory findings
• Important variables, concepts, ideas and issues across all the literature examined
• Connections between these concepts
• Summarizing comments regarding general patterns in the literature

Some Typical ways of organizing a literature review

• Thematic organization
• Arguments in the field
• Conceptual analysis
• Critical review of methodology

Sources

 D'Onofiro, A. (2001). Reviews of Literatre for ed 510. Retrieved September 20, 2011, from Widener University: http://muse.widener.edu/~aad0002/510review.htm

Taylor, D. (n.d.). The Literature Review. Retrieved September 20, 2011, from University of Toronto: http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/specific-types-of-writing/literature-review

University of California Santa Cruz, University Library. (n.d.). Write a LIterature Review. Retrieved Septemer 20, 2011, from University of California Santa Cruz, University LIbrary: http://library.ucsc.edu/help/howto/write-a-literature-review

Article Review #1

Meskerem Goshime

September 20, 2011

Connaway, L. S., Dickey, Timothy J., & Radford, Marie L. (2011). "If it is too inconvenient I'm not going after it:" Convenience as a critical factor in information-seeking behaviors. Library & Information Science Research, 33, 179-190.

Introduction

This article reports findings of a research project made in two phases.  The research explored “the emergence of the concept of convenience as a critical factor in information-seeking choices among a variety of different types of people, across a period of several years, and in a variety of contexts (Connaway et. al, 2011).”

This article may be relevant to my research proposal as I am currently considering the topic "information search behavior of high school and college students" with a focus on the process of searching and finding information resources for the purpose of school projects.  I am considering using firsthand accounts of students in the form of a diary of their information search process, while working on a school project, describing each of the sources they tried, their success or failure in finding the information they need, and their feelings and opinions along the process.

Research Question

The research questions of this study were “Why do people choose one information source instead of another?” and “What factors contribute to their selection of information sources?”

Population, Data Sources, Data Collection and Data Analysis

This is a non-experimental research which employed a variety of qualitative and quantitative methods to collect the data (data triangulation).  The population for the first part of this study was faculty, undergraduate and graduate students of 44 colleges and universities in Mid-Western U.S.  Methodologies used were investigation (exploratory study), online survey and telephone follow up interview of randomly selected subjects, exploratory focus group interviews and follow up semi-structured interviews with a subset of focus group participants in a natural setting.  The second part of the research, seeking synchronicity project, was conducted after a three year period (longitudinal study).  This part used online survey and telephone interviews of reference service users and non-users.  The population for this part of the study is not clear to me from the report.  However, judging from the findings presented, I would guess that it involved public library virtual reference service users.  (Age groups from age 12 and rural, urban and sub-urban categories are mentioned in the findings.)

            The results from all the methodologies used strongly showed that convenience is a factor for making choices in both academic and everyday-life information seeking.  It also concluded that this is especially prevalent among younger people, but also holds across all different categories used in the research.

Literature Review

Literature review of this article cited different previous researches in relation to users’ preference of information sources that are convenient and easy to use, particularly the internet.  As a theoretical base, the research cites the “rational choice theory” (developed in economics), which states that “even the most complex social behavior may be viewed in terms of discrete and elementary individual actions.  …each individual choice among actions is rationally directed towards their own values.”  (Connaway et. al, 2011)  Gratification theory, which suggests that at least for poorer subjects, information must be easily and timely accessible, is also cited.  Gratification theory states that poor people seek immediate gratification. 

The literature review did not explicitly point out a gap in the literature that it attempts to fill.  Its findings seem similar to previous researches.  However, the fact that this study was conducted on a large population, over a period of time, and using various methodologies makes it significant in understanding the topic.

Caveats

Even though users were asked about their information use behavior in their academic and every-day life information needs, the report did not explain whether even sampling is made from people in academy and people not in academy, but the results seem to be generalized to all.

Even though a longitudinal research was made comparing results in a period of three years, I was not able to determine from the report if the same population is used for the second online survey.  It is explicitly mentioned that the population used in the first online survey is faculty, and undergraduate and graduate students.  However, the second online survey seems to be on public library reference service users, as I mentioned above.  If the population used is indeed different, it may not be valid to compare the two results.  However, on the other hand, the consistency of the results still suggests that the results are probably valid in varied population groups.

Key Concepts Blog: Developing the Research Study Readings

Patten (2000) Topic 14

Reasons for Reviewing Literature

First steps when planning to do research:

• Identify a broad problem area
• Review literature on the topic (theoretical and research literature)

Uses of Literature review

• To identify a testable hypothesis.
• Replicating a study – mimic an original study in all important respects.
• Modified replication - eg. new population, improved measurement technique etc.
• Resolve conflict in previous research.
• May help to come up with a new idea.
• To identify measuring tools/instruments and avoid those found to be not good.
• To see how research reports are written.
• To be able to cite relevant literature and show importance of the research and how it flows with previous research.

Patten (2000) Topic 15

Locating Literature Electronically
Descriptor – a key subject-matter term used to describe a record in a database.

Thesaurus – is used to determine which descriptors are available in relation to a topic.

Patten (2000) Topic 16

Writing Literature Review

-        Name and describe the broad problem area and provide conceptual definitions of major terms.

-        Establish importance of the topic – by showing that the topic was deemed important to be investigated by others researchers or by citing statistics regarding the population of interest.

-        Topic-by-topic description of relevant research – provide major and minor subheadings.

o   Group similar references.

o   Point out conflicts.

o   Indicate results of the researches (may not be necessary to describe methodology except when pointing out weaknesses in the methodology.)

o   Summarize and relate the review to your study.

Williamson (2000) Chapter 3
The Beginning Stages of Research

Theory is systematic explanation of observed facts and laws.  It is a complex set of relationships amongst variables.  Theoretical framework of a project describes key ideas underpinning the research and how they are related.  Theory may be developed from observation, discussions and literature review.  After the research is completed, theory will be developed based on findings, which incorporates initial theoretical ideas.

Literature Review is identifying, locating, synthesizing and analyzing the conceptual literature, research reports, articles, conference papers, books, thesis etc. related to the research topic.  It should include evaluative/critical judgments about the literature and present comparison of ideas and research findings tying them together.  Its purpose is to provide background and context for the research.

Wildemuth (2009) Chapter 2

Developing a Research Question

Attributes of a Good Research Question

• Clear, unambiguous, and easily understood
• Specific enough to suggest the data that need to be collected during the study.
• Answerable/feasible to collect the needed data.
• Interconnected with important concepts or phenomena
• Substantively relevant to the field.

To determine the feasibility of the research question, consider the following:

• Access to the people whom you want to be participants of the study.
• Equipment and material resources needed for the study and expertise to use equipment and software – (eg. Computer, software, printing and mailing video recording, audio recording, financial incentives for participants…)
• Political support needed to do the study (eg. From organization’s management).

Wildemuth (2009) Chapter 3

Questions Originating in Library and Information Practice

Evidence based practice is when information professionals base their decisions on the strongest evidence available.

Formulating practice-based research question

The question should be expressed in somewhat abstract form to make it of interest beyond the local setting, but not too abstract/generalized that it can no longer be of interest or support decisions in local setting.

Wildemuth (2009) Chapter 5

Testing Hypothesis

Hypotheses in Social Science usually make a statement about the relationship between two variables.  The researcher has an obligation to test its accuracy to the best of his/her ability.

Sources of hypotheses could be direct experience, prior studies, or established theory.

Pyrezak (2008) Apendix D
Checklist of Evaluation Questions

Considerations in the introductory part and general organization of literature review: specificity of problem area, presentation of the importance of the problem and underlying theories, organizing the citations by topics and subheadings, provide conceptual definitions, cite sources for factual statements, and ensure logical flow of research purposes, questions or hypotheses.

Considerations in choosing literature to review:  do not use too many sources for a single point, consider importance and currency, distinguish between opinions and research findings, note gaps in literature, and avoid overuse of direct quotes.

Sources

Patten. (2000). Topic 14 - 16. In Understanding Research Methods. Pyrezak Publishing.

Pyrezak, F. (2008). Appendix D. In Evalutaion Research in Academic Journal. Pyrezak Publishing.

Wildemuth, B. M. (2009). Chapter 2, 3, 5. In Applications of Social Research Methods to Questions in Information and Library Science. Connecticut.

Williamson, K. (2000). Chapter 3. In Research Methods fr Students and Professionals: Information Management and Systems.

Key Concepts Blog: Research Traditions Readings

Williamson (2000) Chapter 2

The Two Major Traditions of Research
Positivist Research

Philosophy – all scientific knowledge should be based on objectively observed experience.

Usually linked with deductive reasoning, quantitative methods (may also include qualitative especially by post-positivists).  It seeks to link cause and effect and generalizations eventually made.  Researcher tries to refute his/her hypothesis.  If data is consistent with hypothesis, the hypothesis is corroborated (i.e. temporarily supported, but not proved).

Post positivists use more natural setting for research, seek more insider (emic) views) and incorporate more qualitative methods.

Interpretivist Research

Philosophy – social world is interpreted or constructed (constructivism).  It is concerned with meaning.

It is mainly associated with deductive reasoning and qualitative methods.  It uses naturalistic inquiry.  They plan their research, but less linear.  The researcher may make adjustments in light of new perspectives during the research.  Emphasis is not given on generalization.  However, it needs to be rigorous and validity and reliability are insured by comparing with literature and triangulation.

Pyrczak (2008) – Appendix A
Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Steps in Quantitative Research

·       Start with hypothesis/purposes derived from previous research or theory.

·       Select random sample representative to population (relatively large sample of participants).

·       Make observations with instruments that can be scored objectively.

·       Describe results using statistics and make inferences to population.

Quantitative researcher has limited interaction with participants.

Steps in Qualitative Research

·       Start as general research question, not hypothesis.

·       Select purposive sample that the researcher believes to be appropriate, not random and not necessarily representative of larger population.

·       Relatively small sample like one exemplary case or classroom.

·       Observe with relatively unstructured instruments like semi-structured interviews or unstructured observations.

·       Observe intensively for extended period of time to get in-depth insight.

·       Results presented in words with emphasis on the sample, without generalizations to larger population.

It is personal, interactive and characterized by researcher’s awareness of their own orientations, biases, experiences.

Connaway and Powell (2007) Chapter 2

Developing the Research Study
Identification of the Problem

·       See and state the problem clearly/precisely.

·       It may be from previous related research in the field and gaps in knowledge.

·       Steps

o   Write clear statement of the problem in complete grammatical sentences.

o   Identify and write sub problems, that when combined, are equal to the whole.

Hypothesis

Hypothesis is “tentative propositions set forth to assist in guiding the investigation of a problem or to provide possible explanations for the observations made.”

An ideal hypothesis should be:

·       Generalizable, universal, i.e. hold up in more than one situation.  It may also be for a specific situation.

·       Compatible with existing knowledge/not isolated from larger body of knowledge.

·       Testable.

Eldredge (2004)

Inventory of Research Methods for Librarianship and Informatics
Cohort Design

Tracks overtime a defined population that share common characteristics as it encounters a phenomenon

The exposure may be intended or unintended.

Eg. Students’ information literacy before and after they are exposed to library or information instruction

Three types of cohort studies

Retrospective – when study begins after exposure.

Prospective – when study begins before exposure.

Longitudinal – when multiple measurements are taken at regular intervals.

Case Study

Investigating a contemporary phenomenon in its real-life context … utilizing multiple sources of evidence

Describes and analyzes the author’s experiences with a process, group, innovation, technology, project, population, program or organization.

Patten (2000) Topics 1-10

Topic 1 

Empirical Research - is based on observations, but differs from everyday observations because it is carefully planned. 

Planning the Research – empirical scientist try to avoid misleading results and poor interpretations by carefully planning why (the research need) and whom (sample or whole population) they observe, and how and when (research instruments) to observe.

Topic 2

Experimental research is when the researcher gives treatments and observes if they cause any changes.  Usually, in an experiment, the group to be studied is divided into two randomly and treatment is given to one group (experimental group) and no treatment is given to the other group (control group).  Sometimes, groups may not be assigned at random, but it may still be experimental research.  However, the control group should have the same/comparable demographics, background etc. as the experimental group.

Non-experimental research observes subjects in order to describe them as they naturally exist without giving any treatment.  Some kinds of non-experimental research are casual comparative research, survey/poll, census, case study, field research/ethnographic research, longitudinal research, correlational research, and historical research. 

Topic 3

Casual-Comparative Study (ex post facto study) is non-experimental research which is done when experimental research cannot be done due to physical, ethical, legal and financial reasons.

Steps in casual comparative study

• ·       Observe and describe current condition
• ·       Look to the past and try to identify possible causes

Topic 4

Field research/ethnographic research is a kind of case study where we study a group while becoming a member of the group.

Correlational research repeatedly measures trait(s) of subjects over a period of time to trace developmental trends.

Topic 5

A variable is a trait or characteristic with two or more categories.  (Example – variable - gender, categories – male or female.)  All variables have mutually exclusive categories, i.e. each subject belongs to only one category.

Types of Variables 

• Naming/categorical variables (example - gender – name or female) versus quantitative variables – (example - GPA)  
• Dependent versus independent variables.

Topic 6

All experiments have at least one independent variable (stimulus, input) and one dependent variable (response, output).  But they may have more than one independent variables and/or more than one dependent variables.

The independent variable is physically manipulated to observe the extent to which it causes changes in the dependent variable.

Topic 7

Hypothesis is educated guess or formal theory.  It is prediction of outcome of the study.  It may be directional or non-directional.

Research Purpose and Research Question - Hypothesis may instead be expressed as research purpose or research question.

Topic 8

Conceptual definition is definition of concepts of terms as in dictionaries.

Operational definition indicates physical steps we take to observe the variables.  Operational definition should be adequate enough to permit replication of the research.  It should also be meaningful and relevant.

Topic 9

 Quantitative Research

• ·       Deductive research - starts with literature review and deriving hypothesis from literature.
• ·       Uses highly structured instruments and produce numbers.
• ·       Large sample.
• ·       Limited interaction with subjects.
• ·       Doesn’t make adjustments in the research.
• ·       Summarizes all responses and doesn’t report on individuals.
• ·       Generalizes the report to one or more population.

Qualitative Research

• ·       Inductive – hypothesis from preliminary study of the subjects.
• ·       Unstructured instruments and produce words.
• ·       Small sample.
• ·       Spend a lot of time interviewing and observing.
• ·       Makes adjustments as necessary during the research.
• ·       Tends to cite individuals.
• ·       Limits findings to the individuals/group studied.

Topic 10

 Favor qualitative research when:

• ·       the topic warrants qualitative research (example – emotional impact …)
• ·       little is known about a topic.
• ·       in secretive cultures.
• ·       time and funds are limited.

Favor quantitative research when:

• ·       the topic warrants quantitative research (example – economic conditions …)
• ·       subjects are not available for extended interview/observation.
• ·       numbers are required.

A blend of qualitative and quantitative methods may be used.

Sources

Connaway, L. S.  and Powell, R. (2007). Chapter 2. In Basic Research Methods or Librarians (5th ed.). California.

Eldredge, J. D. (2004). Inventory of Research Methods for Librarianship and Informatics. Journal of the Medical Library Association, 92(1), 83.

Patten. (2000). Topic 1 - 10. In Understanding Research Methods. Pyrezak Publishing.

Pyrezak, F. (2008). Appendix A. In Evalutaion Research in Academic Journal. Pyrezak Publishing.

Williamson, K. (2000). Chapter 2. In Research Methods fr Students and Professionals: Information Management and Systems.

Key Concepts Blog: Introductory Readings

Wildemuth Chapter 1

Using Research Results to Improve Practice in the Information Professions 
Evidence-based practice – developing best practices through examination and application of research findings. 
Basic Research may not have impact on practice for a decade or more.  Applied Research have an impact on practice almost immediately.

Connaway and Powell Chapter 1

Research and Librarianship 
Basic versus Applied Research

o   Basic/Scientific Research – pure, theoretical – concerned with concepts and their relations, hypothesis and theories – not directly related to technical and practical problems.

o   Applied Research – puts emphasis on solving specific problems in real situations.

Qualitative versus Quantitative Research

o   Quantitative Research – is highly structured and relies on quantification of data.

o   Qualitative Research – observing and trying to understand behaviors of individuals.

Williamson Chapter 1

Introduction to Research in Relation to Professional Practice 
Positivist Research – gives emphasis on quantitative data, techniques like questionnaire 
Interpretvist – gives emphasis on qualitative data, meanings created by people

Sources 

Connaway, L. S. and Powell R. (2007). Chapter 1. In Basic Research Methods or Librarians (5th ed.). California.

Wildemuth, B. M. (2009). Chapter 1. In Applications of Social Research Methods to Questions in Information and Library Science. Connecticut.

Williamson, K. (2000). Chapter 1. In Research Methods fr Students and Professionals: Information Management and Systems.